by Georges Fery 

Pizarro’s arrival was the most significant event since the city’s foundation. Everybody gathered at the port to see the gold and silver, the colorful fabrics, the ceramics, and the horse-like animals (llamas). The crew members who had returned with Tafur bitterly deplored their lack of resolve. The name Perú, instead of Birú, was officially recognized and spread from mouth to mouth and from streets to taverns. The “Eastern Enterprise” was renamed the “Perú Enterprise.” Not so happy was Governor Pedro de los Rìos, for he was concerned that should many people leave for the new land, it would depopulate the government of Tierra Firme.

The partners realized they needed their discovery to be recognized by the Crown in Madrid. After arguing about the terms of a potential contract, they agreed that Pizarro should go to Spain, where he would ask for titles for each of them: governor of Perú, for Pizarro; “adelantado” or military commander, for Almagro; and the bishopric of Tumbes for Luque. Ruiz de Estrada would get the title of “alguacil mayor,” an ancient title meaning bailiff and a high office charge. The thirteen crew members of the last expedition would receive bonuses in addition to paid functions.

In early September 1528, when all was agreed, Pizarro boarded a ship from the port of Nombre de Dios on Tierra Firme’s Caribbean coast. With him were the young boys Felipillo, Yacané and Martinillo whom he had captured off the Island of Salango; the ship also carried half a dozen llamas, fine painted ceramics and embroideries, and much gold and silver. Pizarro landed at the Spanish port of Sanlúcar and went on to Seville. There, the lawyer Martin Fernández de Enciso recognized Pizarro as Alonso de Ojeda’s former lieutenant, accused him of having connived with Pedrarias Dávila in Balboa’s trial and execution, and demanded that he be jailed.

Someone at Court in Madrid, probably Pizarro’s brother Hernán demanded, through the Council’s office, that he be released on grounds of unsustainable facts and falsehood. In Madrid, Pizarro met with members of the Royal Supreme Council of the Indies, where he presented his written accounts and the maps of his voyages of discovery to Queen Isabela.I (1451-1504). He presented the tumbisinos Felipillo, Yacané, Martinillo and showed the llamas, the finely embroidered fabrics, and the gold and silver. The Royal Council was stunned by the news of this unknown world they named Nueva Castilla. A formal agreement or capitulación was then drawn giving Pizarro the titles of Captain General, Governor, Administrator (Adelantado), and Constable (Alguacil Mayor) over New Castille’s 200 leagues (700 miles). This area would henceforth be called Perú. Pizarro would receive an annual remittance of 725,000 gold maravedis (+/-$240K); Almagro was named Mayor and Constable of Tumbes, renamed Nueva Valencia de la Mar del Sur, with 300,000 maravedis and the honorific title of “hidalgo” or gentleman; Bartolomé Ruiz was named first navigator of the South Seas with 60,000 maravedis; Pedro de Candia, was elevated to the rank of artillery major of Perú and councilor of Tumbes, while the thirteen sailors were granted the status of knights of the Golden Spur with related benefits.

Under the terms of the agreement, Pizarro was authorized to set up towns with good soil and clear running water to grow food; name town mayors; mine gold and silver; build forts and organize military forces of 250 men; import horses and slaves; protect and evangelize the natives. Queen Isabela.I signed this Capitulación de Toledo or Agreement of Toledo, on 6 of July 1529. Once the nominations and agreement were signed, Pizarro, now with the title of governor of Perú rode to Trujillo, his birthplace in the province of Extremadura. He enjoyed his extended family there for a few weeks, many of whom would follow him to the New World. They included his illegitimate brothers Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro, a half-brother, Francisco Martín de Alcántara, and several childhood friends. In early 1530, they all met in Seville with Crown officials assigned to follow Pizarro, who planned to sail from the port of Sanlúcar de Barameda, instead of the traditional port of Cádiz. His last-minute port change was to bypass the terms of his agreement and exit license, which required him to take 250 soldiers.

Pizarro’s brother Hernando smartly suggested that, with his family and friends, the number of men met the exit license requirements. Meanwhile, the partners in Panama, Almagro and Luque, anxiously awaited Pizarro’s arrival in Nombre de Dios. Almagro was angry because, in past correspondences, he believed that his partner had hoarded Perú’s three most important Crown titles. He was enraged that he wanted to break the “Perú Enterprise.” Luque told him that there had to be reasons that would be explained upon their partner’s arrival. Almagro tepidly welcomed Pizarro, who, perceiving his partner’s antagonism, told him that he had to accept the three titles because the Crown did not want to split the agreement between two or more holders. Therefore, he had to bow to the Crown’s demands or lose the deal. Pizarro then underlined that the “Perú Enterprise” terms of association of equal partnership remained unchanged. Almagro was mollified, and the partners started to organize the third expedition to Perú. As expected, arguments quickly arose between Almagro and Pizarro’s brothers, Juan, González, and Hernando, with whom Almagro never got along. The antagonism was again threatening to break the enterprise, but thanks to Pizarro’s authority and Luque’s conciliatory approach, Almagro remained.

In the following weeks, two ships arrived from Nicaragua loaded with Indian slaves, under the command of Juan Ponce de Leon and his partner Captain Hernando de Soto. For his support in the Perú venture, de Soto demanded the position of lieutenant governor. He further demanded, for Ponce de León discoverer of Florida (1513), a large portion of land with natives to conquer. Once Pizarro, Almagro, Luque and the others agreed on the terms of their association, they prepared the third expedition.

On December 27, 1530, the flags were blessed in Panama’s main church. The following day, Pizarro called for sailing within the next few weeks, and on January 20, 1531, they sailed to the Pearl Islands and then headed south with a good sea and winds. Besides its crew, there were 180 soldiers, support personnel, 36 horses, and war dogs. The second ship under Captain Cristóbal de Mena’s command was ordered to follow in early February.

Pizarro and his army landed on February 17 in a bay called San Mateo. While the second ship sailed further south, Pizarro, on horseback, accompanied by riders, headed inland along the coast. They entered the town of Atacames, where locals wore fine dresses. In the fishing town of Cancebi they met nobles wearing jewels of gold and saw precious ceramics and fishing nets. Tired, hungry, and under clouds of mosquitoes, they crossed the Quiximes Delta and, battling Coaque natives, found more gold and emeralds. Still heading south, and suffering from painful warts that crippled many, they stopped at a small village where they stayed from April 19 to September 11 to recover. In mid-September, a boat from Nicaragua arrived with reinforcements. The captain, Sebastián de Belalcázar, agreed to bring his men to join Pizarro’s troops, together with two of his friends, on condition that one be named aide-de-camp to Pizarro and the other the town’s mayor. With his sick army, Pizarro had no choice but to agree to the demands. With reinforcement, he proceeded south on a desert-like landscape of vast arid and sandy coastal plains interspaced by valleys and rivers of low water flow, seasonally fed by the snow melts from the snow melts of the Andes mountains.

In early October, after passing through Anta, Odon, and other small towns, and a place named Punta de Santa Elena, Pizarro rested his tired, thirsty, and hungry troopers. On Christmas Day of 1531, they met the Puna Island’s chief, Tumbalá, who brought them water and food, and invited them to visit his island. From past experiences of natives’ tricks hidden by smiles, Pizarro insisted he would only board the boat with the local chief, who was taken aback but accepted.

At this point, it is suitable to clarify who the people of Perú were in the sixteenth century. Today, the country is home to fifty-eight indigenous groups speaking forty-seven languages. The largest is Quechua, with Aymara a second but essential group, that together make up about a quarter of the country’s indigenous population. When the Spaniards arrived in the sixteenth century, there were more ethnic groups, each with their dialect, beliefs, customs, and antagonisms. Quechua was spoken in the kingdom’s capital, Cusco, called “Land of Four Parts” or Tahuantinsuyo. It spanned a territory from today’s Ecuador to most of the northern part of Chile and the northwestern part of Argentina in the south. This mosaic of cultures and languages strained under the Incas’ iron-fisted authority, which fueled sporadic rebellions.

Pizarro understood the latent antagonisms but did not realize then the immensity, complexity, and cultural fragmentation of the Inca empire. His persistent distrust of unknown people was grounded in his experiences in sixteenth-century European wars, where defiance was the norm. On Puna Island, captive young men from other tribes confirmed his suspicions. Pizarro learned about an agreement between recent enemies, Tumbalá of Puna and Chilimaza of Tumbes. The latter secretly arrived at night with warriors to capture or kill the white bearded men who fought back savagely for their lives. The Spaniards were saved by the arrival of two ships and soldiers under the command of Hernando de Soto, who turned the tide.

The “war of succession” that had gone on in the mountains over the last few years indirectly affected the people of the coast, but they knew what was happening from families and friends. Inca officials seconded the chiefs of towns and cities to assist them in administering and overseeing the local political order. That is why it was found later that the Inca governor of Tumbes knew about Tumbalá and Chilimaza’s deep-seated antagonism. Under threat from the Inca, they were forced to cooperate and capture or kill the Europeans, who were unaware of the raging war in the country. In April 1532, with de Soto in Chilimaza’s light boats, the Spaniards boarded their ship and left the island, which they had renamed Isla de Santiago. They then sailed to Tumbes on the coast and left that city on May 16 of that year, leaving behind a squadron of soldiers, a Crown official and a priest. A week later, Pizarro and his men reached the town of Poechos, where its chief Maizavilca welcomed them. Over a few weeks, Pizarro’s informed him of his plan to build a city and a port on the coast a few leagues away at the mouth of the Río Chíra. This plan soured the chief’s welcome because he realized he would lose authority. Like other chiefdoms in the region, however, he wanted to shake off the heavy hand of the Sapa Inca in his affairs but realized that he might have welcomed a heavier hand that would weaken his kinglet powers. Maizavilca shared his concerns with other principals of townships in the Río Chira’s Valley, who agreed to persuade Pizarro to move up the mountains, where bigger prizes and gold awaited. The Indian chiefs’ double aim was to get the Spaniards out of their lands and hand them over to Inca Atahualpa’s army, encamped near Cajamarca, nine thousand feet up in the Andes Mountain range.

The Inca was informed of the progress of Pizarro’s army on the coast and sent a spy to ascertain that they were men and not, as Maizavilaca claimed, huiracochas, the messengers of Huiracocha, the foremost god in the Inca religious pantheon. The spy met Hernando Pizarro and understood he was Francisco Pizarro’s brother. He was fascinated by the barber who shaved men’s faces, and the tamer who, at will, managed horses and war dogs. He also found out that horses only ate grass, not meat, while war dogs ate meat, not grass. His most significant discovery was that the Spaniards were men, not huiracochas, and he reported his findings to the Inca Atahualpa, who understood Maizavilca’s duplicity and kept it in mind for later retribution.

Pizarro was still focused on building a town to settle European migrants. So, on July 15, 1532, he built the village of Tangarará on a promontory South of Poechos in the Rio Chira Delta, whose shores were covered with trees and grass. It would not be his last attempt at a permanent settlement. Pizarro’s thirst for gold had not dimmed despite his venture’s trials, hardships, and growing costs. At that time, he knew the riches were not on the coast but up the mountains in Cusco, where he said the city was covered with gold.

Persistent rumors by natives about war up in the mountains would not stop him. He promised the rope to warn would-be deserters in his crew, demanding to return to Tierra Firme. Unbeknownst to the Spaniards, over the last two years, the war of succession for the crown of the Tahuantinsuyo or “Land of Four Parts” had raged between Huayna Capac Inca Yupanqui’s two sons, Atahualpa and Huascar. This tragic chapter of Perú’s history will be narrated in “The Fall of Cusco.”

This is the second of a two-part article – Read Part One Here

Photo credits:
Ph.5 – Queen Isabela.I of Castille Museo del Prado, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Ph.6 – Francisco Pizarro Ph.Amable-Paul Coutan, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Ph. 7 – Hernando de Soto Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Contributor’s Bio:
Freelance writer, researcher and photographer georgefery.com addresses topics, from history, culture, and beliefs to daily living of ancient and today’s communities of Mesoamerica and South America. His articles are published online at travelthruhistory.com, ancient-origins.net and popular-archaeology.com, in the quarterly magazine Ancient American (ancientamerican.com), as well as in the U.K. at mexicolore.co.uk.

The author is a fellow of the Institute of Maya Studies in Miami, FL instituteofmayastudies.org  and The Royal Geographical Society, London, U.K. rgs.org. Also a member in good standing of the Maya Exploration Center, Austin, TX mayaexploration.org, the Archaeological Institute of America, Boston, MA archaeological.org, the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, DC. americanindian.si.edu, and the NFAA – Non-Fiction Authors Association nonfictionauthrosassociation.com.

Contact:
Georges Fery – 5200 Keller Springs Road, # 1511, Dallas, Texas 75248 – T. (786) 501 9692 – gfery.43@gmail.com  and www.georgefery.com

The conquest of Perú was not, as the word “conquest” implies, a grandiose affair with drums beating and banners flying. Quite the opposite; it was the unexpected outcome for the search for a way across the isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean from the North Sea, today’s Caribbean Sea. At the time, no one could conceive that a South American continent existed.

The ”conquest” began with Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519), mayor of Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darién, the first European permanent settlement in the country, a deputy to Pedro Arias de Avila, governor of Golden Castille (Castilla de Oro renamed Tierra Firme by Panama’s Royal Academy in 1538), a territory stretching from Nicaragua to the Bay of Panama. With sixty-seven Spaniards, Balboa left the settlement in Antigua, battling against nature and natives over the jungle-clad Darien mountains, looking for gold, fame, and a way to the South Seas (now known as the Pacific Ocean).

With him was Panquiaco the son of the Caquetá chief, who told him about a rich land that lay further south on the coast, with great kings. He told Balboa of seagoing boats, gold, and pearls; a land the natives called Birú, the name of its king. On September 25, 1513, Balboa stood on a thousand-foot-high peak in the Darien looking spellbound at the immensity of the South Sea, while his second in command, Francisco Pizarro gazed intently for in his mind echoed Panquiaco’s words…great lands…and…gold!..gold! This sketchy rumor laid the seeds of the Spanish conquest of Perú.

Conquistadors were granted a license to explore and conquer by the Spanish Crown in Madrid, stipulating that the venture would not carry any expense to the Crown. All costs were borne by the conquistadors, who had to borrow money and/or put up in-kind guarantees from families in Spain, for the cost of such ventures was high. Conquistadors had to pay for ships, crews, soldiers, weapons, and food; they had to build settlements to explore unknown and dangerous lands and fight endless battles in their ceaseless quest for gold. They had to pay for enlisted soldiers, ship crews, and debts. Many enlistees were paid soldiers released by the Spanish army from the Christian-Muslim War (1481-1492), or the Italian Wars (1494-1559).

An overseer from the Crown, appointed by the House of Trade of the Indies in Seville, was attached to each expedition, keeping detailed logs of goods and transactions. The conquistador paid him, and so he was a chaplain. The “Right of Conquest” was granted as a binding contract, which was predicated on the Crown’s receiving the royal fifth (quinto real) on all imported precious metals. Other taxes, which could run up to 40%, included providing naval protection for returning ships laden with treasure. Once the new territory was settled and pacified, the Crown appointed a vice-roy, governors, officials,  and an army chief, while bishops of the Catholic orders assigned priests.

Born out of wedlock in Trujillo, Spain, in 1478, Francisco Pizarro joined the military in his late teens, rising to lieutenant fighting in the Italian Wars, where he was wounded. Upon his return to Spain in 1502, Pizarro traveled to the Indies, as the recently discovered territories were known. When in Santo Domingo, on the island of Hispaniola, he was hired as a messenger in the local government. Frustrated in this position, he joined Captain General Alonso de Ojeda as a sub-officer.

With de Ojeda, he fought in the wars against the indigenous Taíno people on the island of Borinquen (today Puerto Rico), rising to second in command when de Ojeda, wounded by a poison-tipped arrow, had to return to Santo Domingo. Pizarro was instructed to wait forty days and, should de Ojeda not return, sail back to Santo Domingo with the soldiers. Pizarro followed de Ojeda’s instructions with a twist. He took two brigantines and sailed west with de Ojeda’s partner, Fernández de Enciso. They landed at the port of Santa Maria la Antigua del Darién (1510), in the estuary of the Tarena River on Panama’s Caribbean coast. There, he met Balboa, also called the “fellow of the drum” for his daring escape from creditors in Santo Domingo, hiding in a wine cask with his dog Leoncito. In Pizarro, Balboa recognized a kindred spirit and made him lieutenant governor.

In 1515, Balboa was named second to the governor of Castilla de Oro, Pedro Arias de Ávila (aka Pedrarias Dávila, 1440-1531), his father-in-law. For reasons that would deviate from our narrative, Balboa rebelled against Pedrarias who, after a speedy trial, had him beheaded in the town’s plaza, watching the proceedings hidden behind a curtain. In 1523, Pizarro took over Balboa’s position.

We have little knowledge of Pizarro, but his achievements point to his strong personality, ethical strength, and great determination to overcome hardship and fear. At that time, he was respected as one of the founders and Mayor of Panama with a large cattle farm in the city’s outskirts. All these years, however, Pianquiaco’s words about gold kept nibbling in his mind, so he set to work on a plan for the discovery down the coast of the South Seas. Once the plan was set, he brought in two partners, the military officer Diego de Almagro and the school master Hernando de Luque. The three swore secrecy and sealed the promise with a mass and sacraments in the main church of Panama. The partners agreed that their share of the riches would be split equally. Pizarro would captain the venture, Almagro would be his second in command, while Luque was tasked with defending the trio’s interests with the governor in Panama. The ink was not yet dry when the plan reached Pedrarias Dávila, who demanded to join the group as a silent partner, not to risk his position as governor of Tierra Firme. For his partnership, Pedrarias Dávila invested some money in the venture and provided the mandatory official license for the expedition, which is now called the “Eastern Enterprise” (Empresa del Levante).

On September 13, 1524, the two-masted ship Santiago departed with Francisco Pizarro in command and sailed west to Taboga in the Pearl Islands. His crew of adventurers comprised 112 ex-soldiers, misfits, and a few Nicarao Indians as support hands. Also aboard were a handful of horses and two war dogs. This first attempt did not go well. Beyond the Pearl Islands, the ship sailed south along the South American continent’s coast, fighting headwinds and gales. They stopped at fishing villages that showed no sign of wealth; the crew only found a few gold trinkets and semi-precious stones. They kept sailing south despite hardships and, at times, gnawing hunger. In February or April of 1525, before heading back to Panama, they stopped at what appeared to be the palisade of a fortified village up on a hill near the coast. The Spaniards called it Fortín del Cacique de Las Piedras. That afternoon, they went up through a thick jungle and found the place deserted, so they settled there for the night.

At dawn, war cries awoke the Spaniards who scrambled to face a large group of well-armed half-naked men. The battle was brutal, and the Spaniards fought their way back to the coast while the fearless war dogs saved the day by gutting natives. Fifty Spaniards were seriously wounded, and five were missing and presumed dead. Pizarro headed back to Chochama, his rear base in the Bay of Panama.

Almagro and the San Cristóbal, another carrack mid-size ship, sailed a week after Pizarro with sixty-four soldiers, support personnel, horses, and war dogs. Like his partner, Almagro followed Pizarro’s southern route along the coast and tried with fifty men to capture Las Piedras, but he had to fall back fighting. Wounded in the face and losing an eye, he was about to be seized by the natives when Juan Roldán, a black free slave, saved him. The soldiers counterattacked and set fire to the stronghold, later called Battle of Punta Quemada. Fighting all the while, Spaniards moved back to the San Cristóbal with their wounded captain. They sailed to the Pearl Islands in the Gulf of Panama, and then to Chochama where Almagro joined Pizarro.

Both agreed that this first foray into the unknown did not produce much but sent the few pieces of gold they had found to Pedrarias Dávila in Panama City, who became furious upon learning of the poor returns on his investment. He called Pizarro an inept fool and other disrespectful names. He declared Birú a land of misery and threatened to fold the Eastern Enterprise and leave for Nicaragua to attend to Spanish settlers. Over the following days, Hernando de Luque informed Pedrarias Dávila about staying in the partnership, which he did with the condition that Pizarro be assigned second-in-command. Almagro welcomed this task to avoid the possibility of a fifth partner joining the venture.

The argument was settled and Pedrarias Dávila agreed to try another six-month voyage. Should that foray fail to produce results, however, the “Eastern Enterprise” would be terminated. On this second sailing, Luque grasped the opportunity to join Pizarro and Almagro. With good winds, in early February 1526, Pizarro and Almagro sailed again, each in command of one of the two manned and provisioned ships of the first voyage, together with three lighter support crafts. They were guided by the master pilot Bartolomé Ruiz de Estrada, who ran on the last route. Cruising south they stopped at Las Piedras and in anger killed every soul and burned the place again. On their way they anchored for water at Isla de las Palmas where in a brief skirmish with locals, two Spaniards were wounded. The men kept sailing south in heavy sea, and at the end of August 1526, along a river they would name San Juan, they assaulted villages to retrieve gold and silver artifacts. The country inland, however, was poor and hilly. Pizarro sent Almagro back to Panama with instructions to enlist more men, while the pilot Ruiz de Estrada was instructed to head south and explore the coast. At the same time, Pizarro and soldiers on horseback followed the ship’s track on land while exploring villages and coves. On his map, Estrada noted the mouths of several rivers with waters from the Andes Mountains seen far inland. For the first time, off the cape they called Cabo Pasado, they crossed the austral equinox line and, a couple of days later, off the island of Salango, they met five large outrigger boats with a sail and large paddle-rudders. Frightened by the foreigners, the crews jumped into the sea and swam to the coast. However, the local trader and his crew of one man and three boys remained on one of the boats. They showed their loads of fine black and cream-colored ceramic bowls, plates, and woven blankets of fine alpaca wool. These goods alluded to a cultured society.

The boats’ crew spoke a dialect used in a town the Spaniards would later learn was Tumbes, located further south on the coast. Pizarro took the boys and named them Felipillo, Yacané and Martinillo, for their actual names could not be translated, and ordered the ship chaplain to teach them Spanish. Pizarro wanted to continue further down the coast, but his crew rebelled because, after months at sea, they wanted to return home; anger almost led to blows.

When Almagro returned from Panama with more men, horses, and food, he brought news that Pedrarias Dávila had been replaced as governor of Tierra Firme by Pedro de los Ríos. Pizarro kept sailing south, and toward the end of July 1527, came to a river named Santiago. The most lucrative encounter occurred close to Isla de Salango’s Punta Illote, a spot they will later call Cabo de la Vuelta, marking the point where they headed back north to answer the crew’s pressing demands to return home. Tired of their complaints, Pizarro ordered the captain to head north to a forested hilly island they called Isla de Gallo. He claimed that the ship’s hull needed cleaning, so the ship had to be beached. Once the work was done, the crew believed they would be returning home. Then in mid-September two white sails appeared on the horizon.

Pizarro thought that more people and support were coming. Instead, captains Juan Tafur and Pedro de los Ríos landed on the beach with the service boat with orders from Panama’s governor for everyone to return. Tafur sternly demanded that Pizarro and Almagro promptly sail back with all their men. After a tense and bitter exchange, the men came close to settling the argument with their swords. As recorded by eyewitnesses, Pizarro then traced a line in the sand, saying: “On this side are those who want to return to Panama and be poor; on my side, those who will remain with me and be rich; your call!” Thirteen crossed over the line, as did the pilot Ruíz de Estrada, even though he had pleaded earlier with Pizarro to return for family reasons. After six months having been left stranded by Tafur, who had returned to Panama with the remaining crew, fighting hunger, torrential rains, mosquitoes, and fever, in March 1528, another sail on the horizon signaled the arrival of a ship from the north, with instructions from the Panama governor to return to Panama. Pizarro again refused, and the partners convinced Ruìz to keep sailing south against the winds and storms of the season. After two weeks, they landed on an island they called Isla de Santa Clara, where they found offerings of finely painted ceramics, fine embroidered textiles, and many large gold and silver disks at the feet of a large stone idol.

The following day, five ocean-going native outrigger boats appeared. They were from the same community as those they had met the year before. They were tumbesinos warriors who led them a few miles south, to a large town called Tumbes, which was protected by a stone wall and a fortress built of massive quadrangular stones. The town’s chief Chilimaza sent men to greet the foreigners. The envoys were kurakas, Quechua-speaking magistrates assigned to large towns by the Great Inca in Cusco. As a welcome, the tumbesinos offered them food, water, and three llamas, which the Spaniards thought were camels without humps. Pizarro was invited to visit the city, but wary of treachery, sent the Greek Pedro de Candia, two musketeers, a mounted horseman, a war dog, and gifts of animals then unknown in Perú: two live pigs, five chickens, and a rooster. Reports from the visit were that the city was well built of stone and its streets clean and paved. Buildings and temples, such as a monastery for the virgins dedicated to the Sun, were likewise well built with carefully shaped stones. People were finely dressed in leather sandals, while markets were well provided with all types of fruits and vegetables.

Pizarro left Tumbes without getting into town, with thanks and the promise of return (which he did in 1532 on his third expedition, when he battled and defeated chief Chilimaza). The Spaniards kept sailing south and found an island they called Isla de los Lobos on the Paita coast, eventually landing in a cove they named Malabrigo. There, they learned that one of the crew, Bocanegra, had deserted and remained with the Indians. On May 3, 1528, the ship headed back to Panama.

This is the first of a two-part article – Read part two here

Contributor’s Bio:
Freelance writer, researcher and photographer georgefery.com addresses topics, from history, culture, and beliefs to daily living of ancient and today’s communities of Mesoamerica and South America. His articles are published online at travelthruhistory.com, ancient-origins.net and popular-archaeology.com, in the quarterly magazine Ancient American (ancientamerican.com), as well as in the U.K. at mexicolore.co.uk.

The author is a fellow of the Institute of Maya Studies in Miami, FL instituteofmayastudies.org  and The Royal Geographical Society, London, U.K. rgs.org. Also a member in good standing of the Maya Exploration Center, Austin, TX mayaexploration.org, the Archaeological Institute of America, Boston, MA archaeological.org, the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, DC. americanindian.si.edu, and the NFAA – Non-Fiction Authors Association nonfictionauthrosassociation.com.

Contact:
Georges Fery – 5200 Keller Springs Road, # 1511, Dallas, Texas 75248 – T. (786) 501 9692 – gfery.43@gmail.com  and www.georgefery.com

Photo Credits:

Ph.1 – Castilla de Oro, Tierra Firme 1513 – @Santos30-wikipedia.com

Ph.2 – Vasco Núñez de Balboa – @georgefery.com

Ph.3 – First Forays – @J.A. de Busto, 1973

Ph.4 – Pedro Arias de Ávila – @silverreaderclub.com

Before setting your compass toward ancient ruins and misty mountaintops, explore the thrill of virtual adventure with cricket x game download. This fast-paced game offers a taste of unpredictability and excitement, just like uncovering a forgotten world. While the stakes are different, both experiences challenge your instincts and reward your curiosity.

Overview

High in the cloud forests of the Andes lies a city frozen in time. Machu Picchu is more than just a travel destination—it’s an immersive portal into the mysteries of the Inca civilization. With each moss-covered stone and panoramic vista, visitors step into a forgotten narrative carved into the mountains of Peru. For history enthusiasts and adventurers alike, exploring this UNESCO World Heritage Site is both a physical and cultural pilgrimage.

What makes Machu Picchu remarkable isn’t just its breathtaking location or architectural brilliance—it’s the fact that it was hidden from the world for centuries. Only in the 20th century did this marvel become accessible to outsiders, adding to its allure as a “lost city.” Today, it beckons explorers looking to walk in the footsteps of ancient emperors and stargazers.

Tracing Inca Footprints: A Historical Perspective

Built around 1450, Machu Picchu is believed to have served as a royal estate or ceremonial site for the Inca emperor Pachacuti. It remained unknown to Spanish conquerors, sparing it from destruction during colonization. Its preservation offers rare insight into Inca ingenuity, cosmology, and culture.

Unlike many ancient cities, this site wasn’t discovered due to legends or maps. American explorer Hiram Bingham stumbled upon it in 1911, guided by local farmers. His findings introduced the world to a civilization whose influence stretched from Colombia to Chile.

Inca Engineering Genius

Machu Picchu showcases exceptional design principles. The Incas used ashlar masonry, fitting stones so precisely that mortar wasn’t necessary. This technique helped structures survive earthquakes. Moreover, its terraces managed agriculture on steep slopes, while a sophisticated aqueduct system ensured fresh water flowed throughout the site.

Such planning highlights their deep understanding of both the Earth and the stars. Astronomical alignments appear in sacred locations like the Intihuatana stone, believed to function as a solar calendar.

The Magic of the Sacred Valley

Your journey doesn’t begin at Machu Picchu’s gate. It starts in the Sacred Valley—an area teeming with vibrant culture, living history, and captivating landscapes. Towns like Ollantaytambo and Pisac offer glimpses into traditional Andean life and pre-Columbian architecture.

• Ollantaytambo: A well-preserved Inca town with terraces and a fortress that once defied Spanish invaders.
• Pisac: Known for its colorful artisan market and hillside ruins, it connects spirituality with everyday life.
• Urubamba: A hub of eco-lodges and organic farms, offering a comfortable retreat amidst nature.

These locations serve as stepping stones into Machu Picchu, each narrating a chapter of Inca legacy.

Traveling the Inca Trail: A Walk Through Time

For those willing to trade modern comfort for authenticity, the Inca Trail delivers a once-in-a-lifetime experience. The multi-day trek winds through lush forests, high-altitude passes, and hidden ruins, culminating at the Sun Gate with a first glimpse of Machu Picchu.

Key Highlights of the Trail

• Dead Woman’s Pass: The highest point of the trek, offering stunning panoramic views.
• Runkurakay Ruins: A mysterious oval structure likely used by messengers or priests.
• Wiñay Wayna: A beautiful terrace site near the end of the trail, often overlooked by those who rush the journey.

This trek is not just a hike; it’s a time machine with stone steps.

Cultural Connections: More Than a Tourist Site

Visiting Machu Picchu isn’t only about admiring ruins. It’s about engaging with local culture, traditions, and stories passed down through generations. Travelers who take time to interact with Quechua communities gain a deeper appreciation for the land’s sacred significance.

From sipping chicha (fermented corn drink) with a host family to witnessing traditional weaving techniques, these experiences bridge past and present. Supporting local artisans and guides ensures that the cultural legacy continues to thrive beyond the ruins.

Travel Tips for a Timeless Experience

Planning your visit to Machu Picchu requires foresight and respect for the site’s ecological and spiritual importance. Consider these tips:

• Book in advance: Tickets for both the site and Inca Trail sell out months ahead.
• Acclimate gradually: Spend time in Cusco or the Sacred Valley before ascending to reduce altitude sickness.
• Pack smart: Layered clothing, reusable water bottles, and biodegradable toiletries are essential.
• Respect the site: Follow designated paths, avoid littering, and don’t touch delicate structures.

By traveling responsibly, you help preserve this wonder for future generations.

A Legacy That Echoes Across Centuries

Machu Picchu isn’t just a relic of the past—it’s a reminder of human resilience, creativity, and harmony with nature. Every carved stairway, granite temple, and sweeping terrace tells a story not just of the Incas, but of humanity’s endless quest to understand its place in the cosmos.

Stepping into this ancient sanctuary invites a reflection on our own histories. And whether you come seeking adventure, insight, or inspiration, the journey through Machu Picchu offers more than you imagined—and stays with you long after the last mountain fades from view.

The Galapagos Islands are renowned for their untouched beauty and diverse wildlife. From the crystal-clear waters to the rare species that call the islands home, visiting this island is truly a once-in-a-lifetime adventure. This article will talk about the unforgettable experiences you can expect from exploring this extraordinary destination.

Unmatched Wildlife Encounters

One of the most remarkable aspects of a Galapagos cruise is seeing wildlife up close. The islands are famous for their diverse and unique species, many of which cannot be found anywhere else on Earth. Visitors can expect to see everything from giant tortoises and marine iguanas to playful sea lions and exotic birds. Observing these creatures in their natural habitat offers an unparalleled connection to nature, far removed from the barriers of zoos or parks.

Exploration of Unspoiled Natural Beauty

The Galapagos Islands are a haven of natural beauty. Exploring the islands offers the perfect way to experience volcanic landscapes, pristine beaches, and lush forests. Every day brings new opportunities for adventure, whether it’s hiking to the top of a dormant volcano, snorkeling with colorful fish, or relaxing on a secluded beach.

Traveling by boat allows visitors to explore multiple islands, each with its own unique environment and charm, offering a variety of experiences in one journey. The variety of landscapes, from barren lava fields to dense forests, creates a stunning contrast, making every island feel like a unique destination.

Immersive Cultural and Historical Insights

Beyond the natural wonders, the Galapagos Islands also offer a rich cultural and historical experience. Visits to local communities allow travelers to learn about the islands’ history and the conservation efforts that help protect this UNESCO World Heritage site. Guided tours led by naturalists provide insightful commentary about the archipelago’s history, the scientific discoveries made here, and the ongoing efforts to preserve its ecosystems. This natural and cultural exploration blend provides a deeper understanding of the islands’ global significance. The islands’ conservation efforts are critical to maintaining the balance between tourism and environmental protection, making it a sustainable destination for generations to come.

Luxurious Comfort While Exploring

While the main draw of the Galapagos is its natural wonders, the journey is often defined by comfort and luxury. Many travelers experience the islands aboard spacious, well-appointed vessels with top-notch amenities. Gourmet meals, comfortable accommodations, and optional spa services elevate the journey, making it as enjoyable as the destination itself.

Whether through intimate yachts or larger vessels, the journey balances relaxation and discovery. With personalized service and exclusive itineraries, each moment spent aboard is a chance to unwind and enjoy the luxurious surroundings while still being immersed in the beauty of nature.

Ideal for Sailing and Island Hopping Enthusiasts

A cruise in Galapagos is a dream come true for those who enjoy exploring destinations by sea. Traveling between islands by boat provides a unique perspective. It allows travelers to experience the beauty of the archipelago from the water. This mode of travel enables seamless access to remote locations.

Also, it ensures an immersive experience in some of the world’s most pristine environments. Whether you’re an experienced sailor or simply someone who loves the rhythm of the waves, this journey combines exploration and relaxation in perfect harmony.

A Galapagos cruise offers more than just a vacation. It’s a chance to immerse yourself in one of the most unique ecosystems on Earth. Whether you’re an avid adventurer or a nature lover, this once-in-a-lifetime opportunity provides a level of immersion and discovery that is hard to match. An expedition here is an adventure that will stay with you long after the journey ends.

Argentina has many different types of scenery, lively cultures, and exciting experiences. From the busy streets of Buenos Aires to the calm beauty of Patagonia, this South American treasure combines city life with great nature. For travelers who want to enjoy their time in Argentina, personalized clothing can help them feel comfortable, look good, and be practical during their trip. Whether you’re visiting the tango-filled neighborhoods of Buenos Aires or hiking in the rough mountains of the Andes, having the right equipment can make your experience much better than you expected.

The Importance of Appropriate Apparel in Argentina

Argentina has many different types of land and weather, so visitors will experience a variety of climates and places. The country has many different types of land, including deserts, green rainforests, high mountains, and wide beaches. This variety needs a flexible closet, and personalized clothing is a great way to handle these different situations.

Custom clothes let travelers make their outfits fit the activities they do and the places they visit. For example, a specially-made windbreaker that protects against the cold winds of Patagonia can help during a hike. In the same way, quick-drying fabrics and breathable materials are important for exploring the wet jungles of Misiones. By picking clothes made for the weather you’ll face, you can stay comfortable and do well during your trip.

Embracing Local Culture Through Customized Apparel

One of the best parts of traveling is getting to experience the local culture. In Argentina, this means celebrating the country’s many traditions and customs, many of which are shown through clothing. Choosing custom clothing lets you honor local traditions and showcase your style.

In Buenos Aires, tango is not just a dance; it’s a big part of how people live. The people in the city care about how they look, and visitors are often impressed by the stylish and classy way they dress. Wearing special tango outfits lets you join in this fun cultural activity and helps you connect more with the local people. Custom headbands, fitted suits, and stylish dresses with an Argentine touch can make you feel like a real porteño as you dance all night in one of the city’s well-known dance halls.

In the countryside of Argentina, many people still wear the traditional clothes of gauchos. These talented riders are recognized for their unique outfits, which have wide hats, baggy pants, and bright ponchos. Personalized versions of these clothes can be useful and fashionable, helping you fit in with local people while also being comfortable and long-lasting.

The Practical Benefits of Customized Apparel

Custom clothing not only helps you blend in with local culture but also has many useful benefits for travelers in Argentina. One of the biggest benefits is that you can pick materials and features that are perfect for what you need.

For instance, when visiting the different areas in Argentina, it’s important to wear clothes that can handle the weather. Whether you’re hiking in the snowy mountains of the Andes or facing the hot sun in the Pampas, you can get special clothing made with helpful features like sun protection, water resistance, and warmth to keep you comfortable no matter where you are.

Custom clothing fits just right, making it comfortable for long days of traveling. Wearing clothes that don’t fit well can be uncomfortable and can cause rubbing or even injury, especially when doing heavy activities like hiking or riding horses. Choosing custom-made clothes means you can get outfits that fit you just right, so you can move around easily and comfortably wherever you go.

Also, custom clothes often have useful features that you might not find in regular store-bought clothes. For example, a personalized jacket could have secret pockets to keep important items safe, or a pair of pants could be made with stronger knees to last longer. These tiny things can really improve how easy and useful your travel clothes are.

Sustainable Travel and Customized Apparel

As more people who travel care about their impact on the environment, using eco-friendly travel methods is becoming more important. Custom clothing supports sustainability in many ways, making it a great option for travelers who care about the environment while visiting Argentina.

One of the main advantages of custom clothing is that it lasts a long time. Custom-made clothes are usually made with better materials and quality than clothes produced in large quantities. This means they are less likely to break or wear out, so you won’t have to replace them often. In the long run, buying strong and good-quality clothes can help cut down on the amount of fabric waste that goes into landfills.

Besides being strong, custom clothing can also be made from eco-friendly materials. Many clothing companies now provide environmentally friendly choices, like organic cotton, recycled plastic, and bamboo materials. These materials are made using eco-friendly methods, which helps lower the carbon footprint of your clothes. By picking clothes made from eco-friendly materials, you can feel good about your trip in Argentina, knowing that you’re helping the environment.

Also, custom clothes help use resources more effectively. Unlike clothes made in bulk without considering personal likes, custom clothes are made specifically for each person. This means that less waste is created during making things because only the materials that are needed are used. Also, custom clothes are made to fit well, so people are less likely to throw them away because they don’t fit right or are uncomfortable. This helps reduce waste even more.

Enhancing Your Travel Experience with Customized Accessories

Besides clothing, personalized accessories can really improve your travel experience in Argentina. You can get personalized items like headbands, hats, scarves, and bags that are stylish and useful for your trip.

Custom headbands are flexible accessories that can be used in many different ways. In the hot and sticky weather of northern Argentina, a headband that pulls moisture away can help keep sweat from getting in your eyes and on your face, making you feel cool and comfortable. In colder places like Patagonia, a headband with a soft lining can keep you warmer and shield you from the wind. By picking a design that shows your style, you can make your travel clothes special and enjoy the useful features of a good accessory.

In the same way, sustainable backpacks are important for anyone traveling in Argentina. Whether you’re hiking in the Andes, visiting the vineyards in Mendoza, or walking through the busy streets of Buenos Aires, a personalized backpack can be made with the features you need to make your trip easier and more comfortable. For example, a backpack with soft straps and a cool back can make long hikes easier and more comfortable. Also, having different pockets can help keep your things tidy and easy to reach.

Personalized accessories help you show your unique style and stand out while you travel. Whether you choose a colorful scarf, a trendy hat, or a special piece of jewelry, personalized accessories can make your outfit more unique and help you be noticed. These items can be special keepsakes that help you remember your trips to Argentina even after you get home.

The Role of Customized Apparel in Adventure Travel

Argentina is a country with many chances for fun activities, like hiking, riding horses, kayaking, and climbing rocks. For travelers who want to enjoy these experiences fully, personalized clothing is very helpful.

When doing outdoor activities, it’s important to wear clothes that can handle tough conditions. Custom clothes can be made with strong stitches, tough materials that resist wear, and special fabrics that keep you dry. This helps your clothing work well in tough situations. Also, custom clothes can be made to fit your body shape and size perfectly, so they are comfortable and won’t limit your movement or make you feel uncomfortable when you’re active.

Besides being useful, personalized clothing can also boost your confidence and make you feel more adventurous. When you wear clothes that fit you well and look good, you feel more confident and ready to face new challenges. Feeling more confident can really change how you enjoy your trip. It helps you enjoy the adventure and make the best of your time in Argentina.

Wrap Up

In summary, personalized clothing has many helpful advantages for people traveling in Argentina. Custom-made clothes and accessories can make your trip more enjoyable and improve how you feel. They also let you show your style and connect with different cultures. Whether you’re dancing the tango in Buenos Aires, hiking in the Andes, or just checking out the local markets, personalized clothing can make your adventures in this amazing and varied country even better.

If you are one of those history buffs who also loves the great outdoors, then trekking in the mountains of Cusco, Peru, high above in the Andes Mountains, to come upon the 2 day Inca Trail should be a goal, nay, a mission for you!

There is a rich tapestry of history, mystery, and forestry all around the trail. The Inca Trail adventure is perfect for first-time trekkers and seasoned mountaineers and is sure to inspire all who dare to embark upon this unbelievable journey through the heart of the Cusco region.

• Legendary Inca Ruins and Archeological Wonders

Prepare to be mesmerized by the stunning Inca ruins that will line the Inca Trail trek all throughout your sacred journey. You will walk on original Inca pathways made of stone that have survived for hundreds of years against time and elements. Hiking on, you will discover the ruins of Wiñay Wayna, an impressive masonry feat Inca settlement built into the side of the mountain.

Yet the crown jewel of the Inca Trail hike is of course the fabled Machu Picchu. Referred to as the “Lost City of the Incas,” this legendary Inca fortress has captivated people from all over the world with its gargantuan stone temples and massive granite terraces.

• Breathtaking Andean Landscapes

Don’t dismiss the Inca Trail hike as merely a walk to Machu Picchu. It is home to some of the most beautiful landscapes in the world and you will journey through them to see for yourself. You’ll be far removed from the hustle and bustle of urban jungles and instead travel by foot through the world’s awe-inspiring Andes Mountains. You will pass sprawling glaciers, crystal blue lakes, and, of course, the signature Andean sky.

The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is a tour of diverse ecological life zones that can only be truly discovered while on foot. You will trek from the lower Andean Mountain ranges, full of lush green flora and fauna, to the stone scree alpine passes at the top, inhabited by crickets and grasshoppers. These diverse and multiple lands are home to many species of flora and fauna, such as the elusive Andean Spectacled bear and the Giant Hummingbird.

• Cultural Immersion and Authentic Experiences

Walking on this hallowed ground feels like walking into rich history. The guides that go with you on this trip make sure this experience is as immersive as possible. On the way, you can take in the native Quechua culture. Meet some of the natives, admire their skill as they perform their traditional weaving, and try some coca leaves.

If you visit in June or August, you might get the chance to witness preparations for or the celebration of the Pachamama Raymi or Init Raymi festivals.

• Challenging Yet Rewarding Trekking

The Inca trail is no easy walk in the park, but the crisp, cool sense of accomplishment and growth you will experience at the end is second to none. The Inca trail is well known for its unforgiving ascents, descents, passes, and for simply testing the mettle and courage of Inca trail backpacking pros and novices alike. Yet the life you will feel and the jolt of adrenaline you experience once you get from Dead Woman’s Pass to the final descent above Machu Picchu is out of this world.

• Exceptional Guides and Support

One of the biggest reasons that the Inca Trail is such a priceless experience? The unbeatable level of service and support that guide waiters and porters provide each and every step of the way.  Not only are the guides experts boasting best-in-class knowledge and expertise in the region’s history, culture, wildlife, plant life and fauna, but they care deeply for the safety, health, and welfare of each and every passenger.

The guides and porters will get you checked in for your epic sight in the new world and culture as they share one of a kind stories as well as tricks and secrets that will help make the Inca trail adventure come alive as the porters get you set up by carrying all the gear.

• Unforgettable Memories and Personal Transformation

​​​When you combine the physical, emotional, and intrinsic experience of those few days of trekking with the incredible natural and cultural beauty of the Cusco region, you will have gone through a process of transformation yourself. Regardless of the motivation that started you on the Inca Trail, many trekkers come home with a newfound (or rather heightened) sense of appreciation for Mother Earth, humankind, and themselves!

​Capping of An Adventure

If you are looking for a physical challenge, a cultural awakening, or even just an intense experience of mother nature, then the Inca Trail has something perfect to offer and memories you will be carrying for the rest of your life. Lace-up your boots, and bring some curiosity and a sense of adventure. The Inca trail awaits!

Machu Picchu became an insanely popular destination over the course of years, and I for one am not surprised.

But with so many people going there, you gotta watch out. The tour companies will try to charge you like crazy just to show you some old rocks. I’m not saying it’s not worth it – it totally is. But do you really want to waste money on a “tour” where all you do is take a bus ride?

That’s why I decided to put this guide together. I’m gonna give you the real deal – how to see Machu Picchu and actually experience it without burning a whole through your pocket. Let’s get right into it.

When to Go?

The perfect timing for the Machu Picchu Peru tour would be between April and October – according to the agencies. Why? Because the demand is huge, and they can inflate the prices. That way, you’re getting a harsh sun and peak crowds. On the other hand, if you visit this site in March or November, you can get better deals and more comfortable weather conditions.

Accommodation Costs

Rentals and hotels close to Machu Picchu are not cheap. But if you plan the trip in advance and book early, you may spot some attractive prices. Dorm beds are also an option if you feel comfortable sharing a room with the whole group.

Boleto Turistico Instead of Machu Picchu

The Boleto Turistico is a local pass to access various historical and archeological sites around Peru. If you plan on visiting more than one historical site around, it’s better to invest in this pass instead of individual tickets.

Tips on Saving Money While Exploring Machu Picchu

We suggest you  avoid the on-site souvenir sellers because the prices are higher than they should be. Skip on tourist traps like food stands and overpriced on-site restaurants, because the prices can be really huge. Instead, explore the local markets, so you can find both delicious food and nice souvenirs.

We also suggest discovering the Inca Trail with no guide, especially if you’re an experienced hiker. Always have a map with you, so you can discover the breathtaking views. The Boleto Turistico permit allows you to extend the Machu Picchu experience to new heights, with no need to pay additional fees.

Learn Some Spanish

Spanish is easy to learn, especially the basic phrases. It may help you get some discounts on tickets and souvenir prices. Also, you’ll navigate the markets and transportation better, while connecting with the locals easily.

Summary

I know Machu Picchu looks awesome in the brochures, but you gotta watch out for those tourist traps ruining the fun! I gave you a few tips that should save you some cash and let you see more than just overpriced gift shops.

Instead of just following the crowds, think about planning your own trip. Go when it’s not packed full of people elbowing you out of the way for selfies. And forget about rushing through to check it off your list – slow down and really appreciate what the Incas built there!

Spanish phrases and history facts are cool, but the best way to experience Peru is with an open mind. Use what I told you about timing it right and making your own adventure. That way you’ll really understand what makes Machu Picchu and the other sites so special, instead of just taking a quick picture and moving on to the next thing.

by Georges Fery

In mid-fifteenth century, the Chachapoyas were incorporated into the Inca “Realm of the Four Parts” (the Tahuantinsuyu in Quechua), under the “son of the Sun” the great Sapa-Inca in Cuzco, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1418-1471). Pachacuti organized the kingdom into four regions or suyu: northwest, northeast, southwest and southeast, with Cuzco at the center. His son Topa Inca Yupanqui (1441-1493) would eventually extend the Tahuantinsuyu along the Pacific Coast to today’s western Ecuador, south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, and most of Chile to the south. But before that, in the mid-fifteenth century the Sapa Inca conquered the powerful Chimú Empire on Peru’s north coast; his army then turned inland toward the Andes. The northeast (antisuyu) territory extended deep into the eastern slopes of the mountain range which was covered by a dense tropical forest. Garcilaso de la Vega (1539-1616) wrote that the Inca invasion of the Chachapoya territory started in the mid-1450s. The invaders went through repeated hard-fought battles in the challenging topography, but the Chachapoyas fought hard and were never defeated. The account does not include Kuélap which may have been bypassed by the Inca armies. Historical sources relate that by the 1460s, after months of relentless battles and deadlocks, the Chachapoyas had no option but to concede to a bitter peace agreement. In accordance with the empire’s rules of occupation, Cuzco sent civil servants and army officers to oversee the territory’s towns and villages.

Furthermore, under the Inca’s rules of occupation, up to fifty per cent of the younger population was moved as mitmaq’ colonists to distant parts of the empire (Espinoza, 1967), while high ranking Chachapoya women were married to Inca administrators. The mummies of those Inca officials are found in mausoleums with their bundles placed side-by-side with those of Chachapoyas. As Crandal (2012) writes, Chachapoya ontology, akin to other Andean people, was predicated on a collective relationship to ancestors who played an active role in reproducing social life.

A smaller yet prominent Chachapoya site with unique particulars is the ancient city of Gran Pajatén, in the Andean cloud forest. Most sites are found between the Marañón and Huallaga rivers in the Rio Abiseo National Park. Gran Pajatén was discovered by Eduardo Peña Meza (1886-1968), but it was known before to people in surrounding villages and stands 9,350 feet on a five-acre hilltop above the Montecristo River, an affluent of the Abiseo River. Based primarily on architectural evidence, the settlement is unequivocally Chachapoya. The remains of over twenty-six circular stone structures, some with two levels, are built atop terraces with stairways. Initially several of them may have stood some fifty feet high with their high cone shaped roof supported by wood beams and covered with natural fibers (Bonavia, 1969, Davis, 1996).

Gran Pajatén (photo at top) is unique not only for its exceptional architecture, but for the number of symbolic and decorative motifs seen on its structures built in Inca times. Like Kuélap, besides being a religious locus, it was a granary depot and distribution center to answer recurring food scarcities. Unlike Kuélap, however, the site was most significant for its religious influence, attested by structures decorated with stone slates mosaic motifs, among which are human shapes and birds held in place with mortar. By and large, the recurrent patterns of most motifs are salient thematic elements that also bear similarities with Inca and Wari cultures. The walls of the second level of Circular Structure-1 are the most elaborate and best-preserved. The building technique shows finely cut limestone slates jutting out of the walls to create geometric motifs. The exceptions to the use of slates in human motifs are the heads, which were sculpted in the round from sandstone, and embedded in the slate design at the appropriate place through a spike jutting out from the head’s back. Kaufmann Doig notes that the schematic and geometric human figures are essentially those of a female that, as a mythical being, held various symbolic attributes.

The figures are repeatedly shown in a circular frieze that encircles Structure.1 and Structure.2, and singly on other buildings (1986). The main recuring stylized human motif is that of the powerful Pachamama. The earth-mother figure, which is shown in a seating position with legs bent at the knees and thighs spread out, indicates that she is giving birth to both humans and nature’s worlds. The Pachamamas are found on both structures and are similar but for their stylized headgear. The first headgear (left) is shown as a starlike crown, and may refer to bird feathers, probably those of the macaw from the Amazon. The second headgear (right) is understood to be the wings of a bird of prey, probably that of the hawk, not the condor. The hawk, a foremost actor in the magico-religious beliefs and ceremonies of the cultures of the Andes tropical forest, is also found in other ancient societies. As Kauffmann Doig points out, the Pachamama “is the foremost fertility goddess who presided over planting and harvesting and is found in other cultures of ancient Peru” (2017). The Pachamama is the patron deity of most ayllus or localized social groups, self-defined as ancestor-focused kindred.

For it was then believed that, among Pachamama’s abilities, was her ever-present creative powers that sustained life on this earth” (1992). Ceramics analysis shows that Gran Pajatén was occupied as early as 200BC, while stone and ceramics link the structures to early Inca occupation. So far there is no record of human remains, mummified or otherwise. The ancient city, like Kuélap, was a granary depot guarded by a strong force and backed up, it was believed, by powerful ancestors and the deities of another world. As Anselmo Lozano Calderón writes “The ancestral past of Andean and Amazonian cultures was replete with the esthetic and symbolic depiction of their existence, akin to the rhythms of nature, and grounded historically in their faith, their land and magic of the divine” (in Kauffmann Doig, 2017).

A day’s walk from Gran Pajatén, at 8,900 feet in the cloud forest, is the site of Los Pinchudos. It is another Chachapoya burial complex located in the  Rio Abiseo National Park, in one of Peru’s northern Andean cloud forests. The site was named for seven mausoleums, two of them badly damaged. Los Pinchudos is notable for the carved wood figures displaying a prominent anatomy. They hang from the outside of the mausoleum’s walls below the stone awnings that protected them from the rain. The name “Los Pinchudos” is from local slang that stands for “the ones with penis.” Sculpted from hard wood, the twenty-inch tall Pinchudos dangle from a wood shaft, integral to the statue, that anchored it into the wall of the burial chamber. No mummies were found, but a few bones and pieces of wool from bundles indicated that the ancestors’ bundles were removed by the Europeans during the 16^th or 17^th century. The geometric symbolism used in the parietal ornaments is like the ones seen at Gran Pajatén and Gantumarca on the left bank of the Marañón river which, for their architecture, bear a close filiation with those of Los Pinchudos. Over five hundred years ago the five mausoleums were covered with painted clay whose residues were found on the back of one of the figures. We do not know if the Pinchudos mausoleums were each painted red, yellow-ochre, or white (Kauffmann 1980; Morales et al. 2002). The symbolic significance of colors was important associated with corresponding rituals, but those are unknown. Unlike purunmatshus made for one person, mausoleums harbored several mummified individuals each tightly wrapped in a bundle.

Mummies and burials are rooted in people’s cultural and spiritual faith in a finite geographical environment. As for most cultures, those roots are primarily defined by language, traditions, and a common belief, which secure their “right of blood” to the soil where they were born and where their ancestors are buried, as opposed to the “right of land” claimed by invaders. In ancient Peru, mummification, or preservation of family members, rested on the belief that their death would be like their past life. They had no expectations about a paradise or a hell, a concept associated with Christianity that arrived with the Spaniards in 1532. Mummification was an ancient practice in Peru, witness the 420 mummy bundles from the Paracas Necropolis, 300-200BC (Tello, 1949). The process of mummification varied through time and place and followed strict imperatives beyond rituals, which were dependent on those of the local environment. In the case of Paracas, the area was, and still is, a dry desert with little humidity coming from the Pacific Ocean.

For the Chachapoyas and other cultures of northwestern Peru, however, the humidity factor was important in the process applied to preserving human remains. Trained people were probably members of shamanic fraternities of either gender, that may have been attached to the priesthood, and were dedicated to the task. The process required dehydration of the body in a cold, dry and well-ventilated location where the removal of the viscera and cleaning of the abdominal cavity took place. Organs in the thorax were not removed, nor were the eyes and brain. Organic substances such as ginger, other roots, and coca leaves were mixed in a light corn paste, which was then used to thoroughly clean and embalm the body. Cotton plugs, and a variety of plant leaves were introduced into the nose cavities as well as in the mouth, to preserve the appearance of the departed. The process was so skillful that the eyes’ sclera was preserved. The body was then placed in a tightly flexed seating position with legs and arms tied up against the body the hands placed over the face. Each finger was wrapped before the body was tightly bundled up in fine llama wool fabrics. Between the wrappings were placed votive figurines or small items cherished by the departed. The bundle was then placed in a cold, dry and well-ventilated location for several weeks or months before being transferred permanently to its last resting place.

Mausoleums such as those seen at Revash, are called “house of the departed” in Quechua (Runasimi), and do not show Inca influence in their architecture. These funerary structures referred to as pukulio or tshullpas are known throughout Peru spanning from the Wari (500-1000) to the Chimú (900-1450). The Chachapoya mausoleums were built in an existing open corridor in the rock face that was enlarged and extended. The walls of the small structures are made of shaped stones set with mortar with a symbolic “roof.”

The roofs over the structures were of the gable or lean-to type but were not necessary since the tshullpas were already protected by the rocky overhang. According to local folklore, the roofs were made for ancestors to “feel at home.” Built close together, the mausoleums look like a little village, their walls covered with mud of a tan color.

Not so inaccessible as the purunmatshus, over time the tshullpas were visited by people that damaged the mummies’ bundles in search of valuables. Unlike at Karajia, however, the mausoleums are collective with remains of select individuals of the same or extended family, for as in other parts of the Americas, not all progenitors qualified as ancestors. Revash’s distinctive features are symbolic figures painted red on the structures and on the rock face above the mausoleums, such as human shapes, local camelids (llama), and geometric motifs.

In most cultures of the Americas, red pigment is associated with blood, the stream of life. Cinnabar, a red pigment oxide powder, was used in burials, for it was believed to protect the departed soul’s “divine substance” and ward off malevolent forces while it traveled through the underworld. Other architectural particulars are cruciform shapes. Today, in ancient and traditional cultures in the Americas, the equilateral cross openings in structures or painted on ceramics, depict the four changing cardinal directions of the spiritual universe associated with their respective twenty deities and colors, such as red, yellow, black, and white for the Mayas. The equilateral Inca chakama cross holds the same symbolic significance. Each of the twenty right angles of the cross carries its own deity, while the steps between each arm of the cross are representative of andenes or terraces built in steep mountain slopes. Of note is that only funerary bundles of ascendant lineage members worthy of being venerated, were placed in mausoleums or in a purunmatshu. Many mausoleums dot the Chachapoya landscape such as Tingorbamba-Pueblo de los Muertos, La Petaca-Diablo Huasi, Laguna de los Condores and Huabayacu among many.

One wonders why human remains have been so important to all cultures. Veneration of ancestors is found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN-A,12,800-8,500BP), and much farther back in time. We have seen this concern at Kuélap, Los Pinchudos, and Revash among other sites in the Chachapoya landscape. As Paul Cornerton points out, repetitive rituals act as a mechanism to create communal memory (1989), and one should add identity. Constant to most ancient and traditional cultures today, is the belief in the permanence of life beyond life, hence the prominence given to forefathers believed to help in relieving the pains of life’s here and now.

The shape of funerary bundles recalls plant seeds about to sprout from their shells and was commonly associated with the rhythm of the seasons and the belief in an eternal return. As McAnany reminds us “the cult to ancestors was integral to the cosmologies and traditions of most cultures in the Andean region and is well documented in those of Mesoamerica” (1995).

The phases of places and divinities follow the same fate as that of people, appearing and disappearing on the scene of life. The sixth Sapa-Inca of the Hanan dynasty, Huayna Capac (1464-1524), had two sons, Atahualpa (1502-1533) born in Ecuador and Huascar born in Cuzco (1503-1532). Huayna Capac unwisely divided the empire between his two heirs. The northwest and the northeast were assigned to Atahualpa, while the southwest and the southeast, with Cuzco at the center of the realm, were allocated to Huascar. The decision proved deadly to the Inca empire. As expected, the brothers were soon at war with each other. The Chachapoyas in the northeast were drawn into the crossfire, and factions arose with some leaning toward Huascar while others sided with Atahualpa. A major battle took place in the upper Andes that took the lives of over six thousand Chachapoya warriors. This tragedy so angered the population against Atahualpa, that it rose from rage to a full-fledged revolt. This massacre turned the Chachapoya population against the victorious Atahualpa who exacted vengeance by killing their leaders and ordered all adolescents of both sexes deported to other parts of the empire (Keith Muscutt, 1998). Kuélap may have been bypassed by the Inca army because it might not have been militarily relevant at the time. Of note, however, is that more than 2,500 stones for slings were stashed in the Atalaya square tower, indicating that the citadel’s defenders were ready to fight off invaders. Large clumps of burnt roofing thatch, however, indicate that residents either burned the structures when the site was abandoned for unknown reasons, or that Kuélap came to a violent end. Whatever the outcome, for the next five centuries, remains of the ancestors buried in its walls were the citadel’s sole occupants.

This is Part 2 of a 2 Part series. Read Part 1 here.

References – Further Reading:
Federico Kauffmann Doig, 2017 – La Cultura Chachapoyas
Keith Muscutt, 1998 – Warriors of the Clouds
Federico Kauffmann Doig, 2009 – Construcciones de Kuélap y Pajatén
James M. Crandall, 2012 – Chachapoya Eschatology: Spaces of Death in the Northern Andes
Warren B. Church, Adriana Von Hagen, 2007 – Chachapoyas: Cultural Development at an Andean Cloud Forest Crossroads
Federico Kauffmann Doig, 1988 – Ultratumba entre los Antiguos Peruanos
Robert Bradley, 2005 – The Architecture of Kuelap
Garcilaso de la Vega, 1986 – La Florida del Inca (1605)

About the author:
Creative non-fiction writer, researcher and photographer, Georges Fery addresses topics, from history, culture, and beliefs to daily living of ancient and today’s communities of the Americas. His articles are published online at travelthruhistory.com, ancient-origins.net and popular-archaeology.com, in the quarterly magazine Ancient American (ancientamerican.com), as well as in the U.K. at mexicolore.co.uk.  The author is a fellow of the Institute of Maya Studies instituteofmayastudies.org Miami, FL and The Royal Geographical Society, London, U.K. rgs.org. As well as member in good standing of the Maya Exploration Center, Austin, TX mayaexploration.org, the Archaeological Institute of America, Boston, MA archaeological.org, the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, DC. americanindian.si.edu, and the NFAA – Non-Fiction Authors Association nonfictionauthrosassociation.com.
Contact: Georges Fery – 5200 Keller Springs Road, Apt. 1511, Dallas, Texas 75248. T. (786) 501 9692 – gfery.43@gmail.com  and www.georgefery.com

Photo credits:

1. Gran Pajatén: @monperou.com
2. Gran Pajatén, Pachamama: @Pedro Rojas Ponce in K.Doig, 2017
3. Praying to the Pachamama: @travelandhealing.com
4. Los Pinchudos: @pueblosoriginarios.com
5. Mummies, Leymebamba Museum: @HenzPlenge-IIRSA.Norte
6. Revash Mausoleums: @perutravel.com
7. Purunmatchus, Looking Back: @andina.com.pe

Browse Tours from Cajamarca, Peru

 by Georges Fery

The Lambayeque region in northern Peru is home to cultures as great as any other that emerged in the country’s Pacific Coast and in the Andes Mountains. One of them is the Chachapoya, whose history arose east of Chiclayo in the rugged and remote northwestern province of Amazonas, bounded by the Marañón River valley to the north and west, and the Huallaga River to the south and east. Between these large rivers, affluents of the powerful Amazon, lies the Utcubamba valley, where the citadel of Kuélap was built ten thousand feet up in the northern Andes mountains.

The Chachapoyas’ origins are uncertain, but they are believed to have migrated centuries ago, probably from Ecuador’s Amazon rain forest. Moving west, they crossed the mighty and dangerous Marañón (or Atunmayo River), a tributary of the Amazon, whose challenging power made their return hazardous. For this reason and because of their relative isolation, the Chachapoyas are a little-known ethnic group among the ancient societies of the Andes.

Ruiz comments that the culture appears to have developed sometimes between the seventh and ninth centuries (1972). Sometime after that, at a cultural crossroads that once connected villages on the northeastern slopes of the Andes, the Chachapoyas developed trade with the cultures of the Amazon and with those on the lower western slopes of the Andes. Remains of their and ancient villages (ayllus) and structures are found, between the Marañón and the Huallaga rivers.

The timeline of the Chachapoyas called “Warriors of the Clouds” by scholars for their remote location in the tropical jungle-clad mountains of the norther Andes, points to interactions with the Chimú (900-1470) and other cultures on northern Peru’s Pacific Coast (unless otherwise noted, all dates are AD/CE). They were followed by the Quechua (Runasimi) speakers from the central Andes around the late 900s (Lathrap,1970; Isbell, 1974). The new arrivals cultivated maize on artificial stepped terraces at select elevations, but favored settlement locations on high defensible ridge tops, between seven thousand and eleven thousand feet. The geographic limits for the people we call Chachapoya, however, have never been clearly defined (Bradley, 2005). They were later conquered by the Incas, who appear to have given them the name Chachapoyas, since there is no record of their original name in the local language.

It is during the mid-fifteenth century that the tenth Sapa-Inca, Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1471-1493), the son of the great Pachacuti, conquered the Chachapoyas and forcibly transferred local villagers under the Inca system of forced resettlement of conquered people to other parts of the empire known as mitmaq. Archaeologist Federico Kauffmann Doig (2017) describes the citadel built on two large and levelled platforms on the ten thousand feet high plateau called La Barreta that overlooks much of the Utcubamba river valley. La Barreta is two thousand feet long by five hundred feet wide, narrowing down to less than a hundred feet in parts of its length. A seventy feet high stone wall surrounds most of the plateau.

The citadel’s location, in the area’s cold and windy climate, was ideal as a storage facility for grains, other dry foodstuff and possibly, for short-time storage, dehydrated meat. It was also dedicated to the local animist cult, with buildings for permanent residents such as priests, civic leaders, and service staff. The circular structures were built for storage. They have no openings for either doors or windows; however, several were found to have small access ramps. The cone-shaped roofs were made of natural fibers tied onto a wood frame. There were openings for both access to storage from the top and ventilation at ground level to let in the dry mountain air. The reason for such a large food storage complex was primarily to answer periods of bad crops, among which were those generated by El Niño and La Niña climate events, which periodically decimated coastal and highland cultures. Each farmer may have contributed to a set quantity of products from their crops for storage under a levy or tax system.

Kuélap is built in concentric tiers within which are over five hundred densely packed structures enclosed by the site’s outer wall, which is seventy-feet-high in its highest section (Narváez, 1996). Within the complex are several groups of circular buildings, as well as five square ones that may have housed administrators and service staff. Among the structures is the Atalaya, a forty-foot-high rectangular stone tower. Located at the northern low end of the plateau, it was a lookout post as well as a bastion from which to defend the site from attack along this lowest part of the ridge (Muscutt, 1993). At the opposite end of the site is an unusual circular structure called the Tintero (inkwell) for its inverted conical shape with sides flaring outward at its top. The neck of the inkwell forms a chimney that can only be accessed from above.

James McGraw, from the San Diego Museum of Man, noticed that the chimney is not fully vertical but deliberately tilted. Its dimensions corelate with the sun at noon on the day of the winter solstice, a key day in Andean rituals for agricultural cycles. At that time, the sun rays shine down the Tintero‘s top opening and projects a beam of light onto its floor. At its bottom were carved stones that may have served to track the movement of the sun, making the structure a solar calendrical observatory (Muscutt, 1993). Geometrical pattern motifs are found on select structures, together with representations of the jaguar and the serpent, both symbols found in most ancient cultures of the Americas. The jaguar is the dominant life form in most domains by day or night, while the serpent is associated with nature’s rebirth, witnessed by the periodic shedding of its skin (molting).

When Bandelier (1907) and Langlois (1934) visited Kuélap, they noted that many of the niches in the buildings were used as open graves, for they found human remains on the outside of their walls, making the site both a living and a mortuary community. Even though the context for many of these burials is unknown, recent excavations have revealed the presence of many entombments within the site’s walls. Archaeologist Narváez, after counting over a hundred such burials, concluded that “in reality the outer wall is a cemetery” (1988). Recent excavations suggest that other burials could still be found within the site’s walls. Two trapezoidal entryways, about two hundred feet long and ten feet wide at the entry point, allowed access to the citadel. However, their width narrows down to allow only one person at a time to enter the guarded gate to the central plaza (Narvaez, 1988). A third narrow corridor opens west; it is difficult to access from the outside and was probably used to discard material in a ravine below.

Who built Kuélap is uncertain, for archaeological evidence is scant (Muscutt, 1998). Earlier dates indicate that it might have been originally conceived for defense against the expansion of the Chimú Empire, which exerted control over much of the central highlands (Kauffmann Doig, 1998). The site was likely visible from agricultural fields that lie west of the Utcubamba river. Church and Von Hagen report that many of the large communities that lie to the west of the citadel are in locations directly visible from the site’s outer walls (2007), such as the town of Chillo, in Kuélap’s shadows. The remains within the citadel’s walls were in all probability those of select ancestors of people living in nearby villages. Crandall points out that the social relationship between ancestor remains and living people, was an ongoing set of practices designed to reaffirm social ties to the ayllu or kin group (2012).

Based on Ruiz’s association (1972), the monumental construction and tombs probably began around the year 900. Southern sites, however, such as Gran Pajatén, Los Pinchudos and Revash, in today’s Rio Abiseo National Park, were occupied in Inca times (Bonavia, 1968, Church, Von Hagen, 2008). Other larger regional centers, besides Kuélap, appear to have developed between the eighth and tenth centuries. In the late nineteen-nineties, the area south of Leymebamba received much attention when pre-Columbian chullpas, (mausoleums or funeral houses), were found at Revash, fifty-two miles from Kuélap in the surrounding hills around Gran Pajatén, which may have been built at the height of the Chachapoya cultural florescence in the first millennium.

The citadel is an imposing socio-economic and religious complex, whose purposes were like those of other smaller sites. The common denominator with those sites is the prevalence of ancestor remains, which are found in either a coffin or wrapped up in funerary bundles placed in mausoleums. As Crandal (2012) notes, Chachapoya ontology, akin to other Andean people, was predicated on a collective relationship to ancestors who played an active role in reproducing social life. Coffins are called purunmatshus in the local language and were made to receive a single individual. The erect purunmatshus of Karajia in Luya province, are among the most eminent. They are found in large recesses carved in an abrupt rock face, that creates a rocky overhang, thus shielding them from the rain and helping in their preservation.

Their isolated location and overhang were at times insufficient against birds and rodents. The ones shown were studied by Kauffmann Doig and his teams during their field research which spanned from the late-1970s to the mid-2000s. The Karajia purunmatshus were found 985 feet up the rock wall overlooking the Aispacha River, each holding a family member or close relative. The coffins are made of clay mixed with natural fibers set on a wood frame; they portray a human shape that, at over eight feet in their upright position, is impressive.

Their appearance is chiefly due to the modeling of their heads and faces, the only anatomical reference to a human body. Their faces and bodies are painted with yellow, tan, and dark ochre designs that make them appear surrealistic and underline that they are men. Even though a few stands alone, they are commonly found in groups of four to ten standing on a thick mud base.

A space between the line of coffins at Karajia, shows that there were originally eight purunmatshus in the original group, but one of them (No.3), is recorded to have fallen in the river below during the violent 1928 earthquake (Kauffmann Doig, 2002). Above their heads, a mummified human skull was held in place by a spike. Of note, however, is that the skull did not belong to the individual inside the purunmatshu but is from another party. We have no record of, nor do we know the reason why the mummified skull was placed there. Was it to record the hierarchical status of the departed? Neither do we have a history of the ancestors’ identities who, according to the collective memory of local people, point to ancestors of the mythic Ocspalin, a cacique or chief of the Conila’s ayllu or community who built the bridge with the people over the Aispachar River. Why were the standing coffins placed in inaccessible locations? It seems that it was not so much to avoid eventual plunder, for at that time ancestors from all segments of society were fearfully respected and so were their resting places. The reason may be linked to the fact that those select ancestors were believed to hold powerful spiritual powers in the “other world.” At times, ancestors may raise the wrath of malevolent forces for the actions of their descendants.

In ancient Peru, the purunmatshus were only used by the Chachapoyas  in their territory on the left bank of the Utcubamba river. Kauffmann Doig, in 1986, identified six types spanning from the sophisticated Type.A or Purunmatshu Regio at Karajia, to Types.B, C and D which varied through time and locations. The distinctive feature of B, C and D, is the migration through time of the head, made of compact clay on top of a stocky ovoid body without neck, to the chest and later to the belly. The absence of head applies to the more recent cone shaped Type.E, while Type.F is referred to as a pseudo-sarcophagus for it is made of a semi-circular, four-feet-high wall made of clay placed in front of a rock face where, within the enclosure, bundled up mummies were found. In Type.A, the mummified body inside was tightly wrapped in fine llama wool blankets in a seating or squatting position (the similarity with Wari mummies is striking), with small ceramics and stone votive items placed between the wrappings and at the feet of the ancestor.

In mid-fifteenth century, the Chachapoyas were incorporated into the Inca “Realm of the Four Parts” (the Tahuantinsuyu in Quechua), under the “son of the Sun” the great Sapa-Inca in Cuzco, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (1418-1471). Pachacuti organized the kingdom into four regions or suyu: northwest, northeast, southwest and southeast, with Cuzco at the center. His son Topa Inca Yupanqui (1441-1493) would eventually extend the Tahuantinsuyu along the Pacific Coast to today’s western Ecuador, south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, and most of Chile to the south. But before that, in the mid-fifteenth century the Sapa Inca conquered the powerful Chimú Empire on Peru’s north coast; his army then turned inland toward the Andes. The northeast (antisuyu) territory extended deep into the eastern slopes of the mountain range which was covered by a dense tropical forest. Garcilaso de la Vega (1539-1616) wrote that the Inca invasion of the Chachapoya territory started in the mid-1450s. The invaders went through repeated hard-fought battles in the challenging topography, but the Chachapoyas fought hard and were never defeated. The account does not include Kuélap which may have been bypassed by the Inca armies. Historical sources relate that by the 1460s, after months of relentless battles and deadlocks, the Chachapoyas had no option but to concede to a bitter peace agreement. In accordance with the empire’s rules of occupation, Cuzco sent civil servants and army officers to oversee the territory’s towns and villages.

This is Part 1 of a 2 Part series. Read Part 2 here.

References – Further Reading:
Federico Kauffmann Doig, 2017 – La Cultura Chachapoyas
Keith Muscutt, 1998 – Warriors of the Clouds
Federico Kauffmann Doig, 2009 – Construcciones de Kuélap y Pajatén
James M. Crandall, 2012 – Chachapoya Eschatology: Spaces of Death in the Northern Andes
Warren B. Church, Adriana Von Hagen, 2007 – Chachapoyas: Cultural Development at an Andean Cloud Forest Crossroads
Federico Kauffmann Doig, 1988 – Ultratumba entre los Antiguos Peruanos
Robert Bradley, 2005 – The Architecture of Kuelap
Garcilaso de la Vega, 1986 – La Florida del Inca (1605)

About the author:
Creative non-fiction writer, researcher and photographer, Georges Fery addresses topics, from history, culture, and beliefs to daily living of ancient and today’s communities of the Americas. His articles are published online at travelthruhistory.com, ancient-origins.net and popular-archaeology.com, in the quarterly magazine Ancient American (ancientamerican.com), as well as in the U.K. at mexicolore.co.uk.

Georges Fery author is a fellow of the Institute of Maya Studies instituteofmayastudies.org Miami, FL and The Royal Geographical Society, London, U.K. rgs.org. As well as member in good standing of the Maya Exploration Center, Austin, TX mayaexploration.org, the Archaeological Institute of America, Boston, MA archaeological.org, the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, DC. americanindian.si.edu, and the NFAA – Non-Fiction Authors Association nonfictionauthrosassociation.com.

Contact: Georges Fery – 5200 Keller Springs Road, Apt. 1511, Dallas, Texas 75248. T. (786) 501 9692 – gfery.43@gmail.com  and www.georgefery.com

Image credits:

1. Northern Peru by @thetrekblog.com
2. Kuélap, the Citadel by @peru.travel.com
3. Kuelap by Martin St-Amant (S23678), CC BY 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons
4. Western Gate by @miguelvaldivia in antiguoperu.com
5. Kuelap Living Quarters and Storage by José Porras via wikipedia CC BY-SA 2.5
6. Purunmatshus Regio by @Federico Kaufman Doig
7. Aya-chaqui, Types D and E by @ancient-origins.net
8. Purunmatshus Type.B by @antiguoperu.com

Browse Tours from Cajamarca, Peru

Cartagena, Colombia, is a city that truly stole my heart with its mesmerizing blend of history and modernity. Nestled along the picturesque Caribbean coast, it’s a place where the past gracefully dances with the present. Join me as I share my personal experiences of Cartagena’s colonial charm and modern vibe that left an indelible mark on my soul.

Historical Background

My journey began with a deep dive into Cartagena’s rich history. Founded in 1533 by the Spanish explorer Pedro de Heredia, this city became integral to Spain’s colonial empire. As I walked along the centuries-old cobblestone streets, I couldn’t help but marvel at the imposing fortifications and city walls that once defended this coastal gem.

Cartagena’s colonial heritage is still very much alive, preserved in its exquisite architecture, culinary traditions, and vibrant street life. The fusion of Spanish, African, and Indigenous cultures has created a unique Caribbean identity permeating every city corner.

Colonial Charm

One of the highlights of my visit was wandering through Cartagena’s enchanting historic center. It’s like stepping back in time as I strolled along narrow streets lined with colorful colonial buildings. The balconies, adorned with vibrant bougainvillea, cast playful shadows on the cobblestones beneath my feet.

A visit to Castillo San Felipe de Barajas was a must. This formidable fortress, once a guardian against pirates, offers panoramic views of the city. Standing atop its walls, I felt like traveling through history and marveling at the resilience of the people who built and defended this incredible structure.

But Cartagena’s charm extends beyond its architecture. The city’s culinary scene is a sensory delight. From savoring traditional dishes like arepas and empanadas from street vendors to dining in charming courtyards adorned with tropical flora, every meal felt like a celebration of culture.

As the sun dipped below the horizon, the rhythm of cumbia and salsa filled the air, inviting me to join in the dance. The streets came alive with music and laughter, and I couldn’t help but move to the infectious beats.

Modern Vibe

Cartagena’s transformation into a modern city is a testament to its adaptability. Tourism has played a pivotal role in this evolution. Pristine beaches, historic charm, and a warm climate have made it a magnet for visitors from around the world.

As I explored the city, I noticed the seamless integration of modern amenities. Luxury resorts offered respite from the tropical heat, and international cuisine tempted my taste buds. The city’s infrastructure had also evolved to meet the needs of both residents and tourists, making my exploration more accessible and enjoyable.

The arts and culture scene in Cartagena had blossomed. Art galleries showcased the works of local and international artists, and cultural festivals like the Cartagena International Film Festival and the Hay Festival garnered international acclaim. Attending these events allowed me to immerse myself in the city’s creative spirit.

The Intersection of Old and New

What struck me most about this city was the effortless coexistence of colonial charm and modern vibe of Cartagena. The historic city center, steeped in colonial charm, harmonized beautifully with trendy neighborhoods like Bocagrande. Here, high-rises, upscale shopping centers, and bustling nightlife venues created a lively atmosphere.

My days were filled with exploration. In the morning, I’d lose myself in the narrow alleys of the walled city, soaking in the history and culture. In the afternoon, I’d unwind on the sandy beaches of Bocagrande, where the comforts of modernity awaited me. It was like experiencing two worlds in a single day.

Unique Experiences

My journey through Cartagena was dotted with unique experiences that left a lasting impression. Here are some must-see places you should visit:

• Sunset at Café del Mar: I watched in awe as the sun dipped below the horizon, casting a warm glow over the city. Sipping a cocktail on the city walls at Café del Mar was an unforgettable moment of tranquility.
• Exploring Getsemaní: This vibrant neighborhood, filled with street art and lively music, captured my heart. It offered a taste of local life with a modern twist, making it a perfect blend of old and new.
• Chiva Bus Tour: I hopped on a colorful Chiva bus for a lively tour of Cartagena’s historic sites, accompanied by traditional music and dancing. It was a fun and immersive way to embrace the city’s culture.
• San Pedro Claver Church and Museum: This historic church paid homage to Cartagena’s colonial past and its role in the abolition of slavery. The museum inside provided valuable insights into the city’s history.

Challenges and Preservation Efforts

Preserving Cartagena’s colonial charm amidst rapid urban development is an ongoing challenge. As I learned, conservation initiatives and restoration projects are vital to protect the city’s heritage. Striking a balance between modern residents’ needs and preserving historical sites requires careful planning and community involvement.

Sustainable tourism practices are essential to ensure that Cartagena’s charm endures for generations to come. Responsible tourism encourages visitors to respect the city’s cultural and natural resources, minimize their environmental footprint, and support local businesses.

To sum it up

My journey through Cartagena, Colombia, was a tapestry of experiences that deeply moved me. This city, with its colonial charm and modern vibe, is a testament to the enduring spirit of a place that embraces its history while embracing the future. As I explored its cobblestone streets, savored its flavors, and danced to its rhythms, I discovered a world where the past and present coexist perfectly. Experiencing the colonial charm and modern vibe of Cartagena is an unforgettable adventure. It’s a journey into the heart of a city that captures the essence of Colombia’s Caribbean coast. Come and experience the magic of Cartagena for yourself – it’s a voyage you won’t soon forget.

About the author:
Meet Emma Bennett, a passionate young travel enthusiast and blogger. Emma’s interests have led her to explore captivating destinations worldwide, sharing her adventures, tips, and experiences through blogs. She’s known for collaborating with companies like Professional Movers Canada to make travel logistics a breeze. Emma’s mission is to inspire fellow travelers to embark on life-changing journeys and discover the beauty of the world.